Histoplasma capsulatum is a dysmorphic fungus that dwells on earth in specific geographic locations. Its presence is favored by the droppings of bird and bats. The human infection is caused by the inhalation of a high quantity of spores. We describe the clinical course of a forty three year old immunocompetent male , geologist, who acquired the infection while visiting underground mines in Central America and Peru. Ninety (90%) percent of the Histoplasma spp infection are asymptomatic. The rest of the cases are manifested by pulmonary or non focalized infection. Its diagnosis is based on cutaneous reaction tests, the detection of antigens in blood or urine and also by direct visual identification of the agent in clinical samples or culture. These patients must be treated with itraconazole or amphotericin-B in accordance to its clinical seriousness.

Bone marrow is the residence site of mesenchymal stem cells (MSC), which upon commitment and maturation develop into several mesenchymal phenotypes. Recently, we have described the presence of MSC in human cord blood (cbMSC) and informed that their properties are the same as those for MSC obtained from adult bone marrow. In this study we have investigated the capability of transplanted cbMSC to home and survive in the marrow of unconditioned nude mice. cbMSC utilized for transplantation studies were characterized by morphology, differentiation potential, and immunophenotype. After transplantation by systemic infusion, human DNA (as detected by PCR amplification of human-specific β-globin gene) was detected in the marrow of recipients as well as in ex vivo-expanded stromal cells prepared from the marrow of transplanted animals. These results demonstrate homing and survival of cbMSC into the recipient marrow and also suggest a mesenchymal-orientated fate of engrafted cells, because human DNA was also detected in cells of other recipient tissues, like cardiac muscle, teeth, and spleen.

One of the main issues in radiology is image analysis and report. The two stages of this process are the extraction of the information from the image and the diagnostic exercise. This paper is a theoretical analysis of image interpretation from a quantitative perspective, using information theory and Bayesian inference, and relating it to the concepts of evidence based medicine. It is concluded that the amount of information is dependent on the previous state of knowledge and the acquaintance with the clinical history and complementary exams. The three determined stages of the diagnostic process are a priori, conditioned by the image and a posteriori analyses. The first stage is related to the degree of information and knowledge of the case. The second stage is dependent on the conditional probability for the presence of image signs of the disease and it is thus directly dependent on the sensitivity and specificity of the exam. The third stage is dependent of the previous stages, that in the simplest case can be expressed in function of the odds or likelihood ratios. These three stages allow to reach a decision about the usefulness of a given exam and they orient the questions that a given image may answer. They also orient the research on image analysis for an adequate decision making, minimizing diagnostic uncertainty.

An epidemiologic and seroprevalence survey was conducted (n=830) to assess the proportion of persons exposed to hantavirus in IX Region Chile, which accounts for 25% of reported cases of hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome. This region has three geographic areas with different disease incidences and a high proportion of aboriginals. Serum samples were tested for immunoglobulin (Ig) G antibodies by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay against Sin Nombre virus N antigen by strip immunoblot assay against Sin Nombre, Puumala, Rio Mamoré, and Seoul N antigens. Samples from six patients were positive for IgG antibodies reactive with Andes virus; all patients lived in the Andes Mountains. Foresting was also associated with seropositivity; but not sex, age, race, rodent exposure, or farming activities. Exposure to hantavirus varies in different communities of IX Region. Absence of history of pneumonia or hospital admission in persons with specific IgG antibodies suggests that infection is clinically inapparent.

The paper traces the evolution and working of the Global Equity Gauge Alliance (GEGA) and its efforts to promote health equity. GEGA places health equity squarely within a larger framework of social justice, linking findings on socioeconomic and health inequalities with differentials in power, wealth, and prestige in society. The Alliance's 11 country-level partners, called Equity Gauges, share a common action-based vision and framework called the Equity Gauge Strategy. An Equity Gauge seeks to reduce health inequities through three broad spheres of action, referred to as the 'pillars' of the Equity Gauge Strategy, which define a set of interconnected and overlapping actions. Measuring and tracking the inequalities and interpreting their ethical import are pursued through the Assessment and Monitoring pillar. This information provides an evidence base that can be used in strategic ways for influencing policy-makers through actions in the Advocacy pillar and for supporting grassroots groups and civil society through actions in the Community Empowerment pillar. The paper provides examples of strategies for promoting pro-equity policy and social change and reviews experiences and lessons, both in terms of technical success of interventions and in relation to the conceptual development and refinement of the Equity Gauge Strategy and overall direction of the Alliance. To become most effective in furthering health equity at both national and global levels, the Alliance must now reach out to and involve a wider range of organizations, groups, and actors at both national and international levels. Sustainability of this promising experiment depends, in part, on adequate resources but also on the ability to attract and develop talented leadership.

Cases of human hantavirus disease have been reported in Chile since 1995, most of them in people living in rural and periurban areas. We conducted a peridomestic study of small mammals to evaluate the relationships between the presence of rodents with antibodies to Andes virus confirmed human cases of hantavirus pulmonary syndrome in southcentral Chile. The results of 20 sampled sites, which involved the capture of 272 mice over ah 18-month period, showed the occurrence of 10 small mammal species, of which Oligoryzomys longicaudatus was the only sero-positive species for hantavirus, with an intra-specific serologic rate of 10.4%.

The editor of this journal has invited the ethical committee to reflect and express its opinion about conflicts of interest in the clinical setting. We define "Conflict of Interest" and discuss the effect that mismanagement of a conflict of interest could have on the doctor-patient relationship. We conclude that the basic conflict in the clinical setting is the so-called "double-agent" doctor. This issue has been studied in relation to the development of the North-American system of clinical administration: "managed-care" The name managed care describes the two basic functions of the clinician: his role of "caring" for his patients, and therefore to search for the best for each individual; and his role to manage the resources available and to control costs. This new scenario may radically change the future of the medical profession. Doctors have an undeniable responsibility in the development of what may be a new paradigm in the way medicine is practiced, certainly changing the social contract of our profession. © 2006 Sociedad de Neurología, Psiquiatría y Neurocirugía.

Purpose of review: This article focuses on recent developments in knowledge about hantavirus infections and hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome in children. We highlight clinical characterization, epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnostic techniques, and current alternatives for treatment and prevention. Recent findings: After the first description of hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS) in 1993 in the United States, new cases of HPS and new hantavirus species have been described throughout the Americas. The factors involved in the expression of hantavirus disease have, in part, been recognized, but there have been descriptions of newer viruses and newer rodent reservoirs. Several seroprevalence studies suggest that the virus-host interaction has been taking place for many years, and changes in human behavior and wild rodent ecology, sometimes secondary to industrial progress, facilitate the clinical recognition of disease. Sin nombre virus (SNV) and Andes virus (ANDV) are examples of the same disease with differences in the virus virulence and in the host response. The North American syndrome and the Southern HPS differ in epidemiologic patterns and in the spectrum of disease. Summary: Currently, no Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved antiviral drugs, vaccines, or immunotherapeutic agents are available for treatment of the disease, and therapy is primarily supportive. Intensive care medicine has played an outstanding role in decreasing the lethality of HPS. A ribavirin trial in the United States did not support the use of the drug in fully developed HCPS. Recently published data suggest that a strong neutralizing antibody response may be a predictor of effective clearance of and recovery from SNV infection. This has raised the possibility that passive immunotherapy may be useful in HCPS. Extensive work has been done to develop a hantavirus vaccine, but at present it seems unlikely that a vaccine will be in commercial development in the near future.

Background Juvenile polyposis and hereditary haemorrhagic telangiectasia are autosomal dominant disorders with distinct and non-overlapping clinical features. The former, an inherited gastrointestinal malignancy predisposition, is caused by mutations in MADH4 (encoding SMAD4) or BMPR1A, and the latter is a vascular malformation disorder caused by mutations in ENG (endoglin) or ACVRL1 (ALK1). All four genes encode proteins involved in the transforming-growth- factor-β signalling pathway. Although there are reports of patients and families with phenotypes of both disorders combined, the genetic aetiology of this association is unknown. Methods Blood samples were collected from seven unrelated families segregating both phenotypes. DNA from the proband of each family was sequenced for the ACVRL1, ENG, and MADH4 genes. Mutations were examined for familial cosegregation with phenotype and presence or absence in population controls. Findings No patient had mutations in the ENG or ACVRL1 genes; all had MADH4 mutations. Three cases of de-novo MADH4 mutations were found. In one, the mutation was passed on to a similarly affected child. Each mutation cosegregated with the syndromic phenotype in other affected family members. Interpretation Mutations in MADH4 can cause a syndrome consisting of both juvenile polyposis and hereditary haemorrhagic telangiectasia phenotypes. Since patients with these disorders are generally ascertained through distinct medical specialties, genetic testing is recommended for patients presenting with either phenotype to identify those at risk of this syndrome. Patients with juvenile polyposis who have an MADH4 mutation should be screened for the vascular lesions associated with hereditary haemorrhagic telangiectasia, especially occult arteriovenous malformations in visceral organs that may otherwise present suddenly with serious medical consequences.

Television programs where medical procedures are shown with progressive realism generate problems that physicians need to know and analyze. The authors analyze this issue, based on the respect to patient's dignity and the principles of bioethics. Medical programs on TV present specific problems to the different agents involved in them: TV media, physicians, health organization, public and patients or relatives that are exposed. Physicians have the responsibility to educate the society using the most efficient methods of public communication, including television. The problem is not how much can be shown but how to do it, making sure that the dignity of patients, the privacy of their stories and their own and their relative's feelings are always strictly cherished. The respect towards the patient is accomplished through a valid informed consent, the reverence to his face as an expression of his personhood, and the way in which his body is exposed. The authors conclude that TV programs on health and medical subjects are valuable methods to educate society and that physicians, in their function of social educators, should take part in them truly reassuring the respect to patient's dignity and to the bioethical principles of beneficence, autonomy and justice.

Background. The use of mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) for cell therapy relies on their capacity to engraft and survive long term in the appropriate target tissue(s). Animal models have demonstrated that the syngeneic or xenogeneic transplantation of MSC results in donor engraftment into the bone marrow and other tissues of conditioned recipients. However, there are no reliable data showing the fate of human MSC infused into conditioned or unconditioned adult recipients. Methods. In the present study, the authors investigated, by using imaging, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and in situ hybridization, the biodistribution of human bone marrow-derived MSC after intravenous infusion into unconditioned adult nude mice. Results. As assessed by imaging (gamma camera), PCR, and in situ hybridization analysis, the authors' results demonstrate the presence of human MSC in bone marrow, spleen, and mesenchymal tissues of recipient mice. Conclusions. These results suggest that human MSC transplantation into unconditioned recipients represents an option for providing cellular therapy and avoids the complications associated with drugs or radiation conditioning.

This study makes use of the concept of ideology to answerimportant questions of political competition. I develop amulticandidate model in which voters use ideology as asimplifying device that helps them to choose a candidate in anoisy environment. Three important results arise for thehomogeneous-polity case. First, the candidate with moreresources is the one more likely to win the election. Second,a merger between two parties might yield to a higher expectedplurality for the candidate of the newly formed party. Third,political convulsion yields to a decrease in the expectedplurality for the incumbent candidate. © 2004 Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Mucopolysaccharidosis IVA (MPS IVA) is a lysosomal storage disorder caused by the deficiency of N-acetylgalactosamine-6-sulfate sulfatase (GALNS). Mutation screening of the GALNS was performed by genomic PCR and direct sequence analyses in 20 MPS IVA patients from Latin America. In this study, 12 different gene mutations including nine unreported ones were identified in 16 severe and four attenuated patients and accounted for 90.0% of the unrelated mutant alleles. The gene alterations were missense mutations except one insertion. Six recurrent mutations, p.A75G, p.G116S, p.G139S, p.N164T, p.R380S, and p.R386C, accounted for 5.0, 10.0, 5.0, 7.5, 5.0, and 32.5% of the unrelated mutant alleles, respectively. The p.R386C mutation was identified in all Latin American populations studied. Eleven mutations correlated with a severe form, while one mutation, p.R380S, was associated with an attenuated form. MPS IVA patients had an elevation of urine and plasma keratan sulfate (KS) concentrations compared with those of the age-matched control. KS concentrations in severe patients were higher than those in attenuated patients. These data provide evidence for extensive allelic heterogeneity and presence of a common mutation in Latin American patients. Accumulation of mutations with clinical description and KS concentration will lead us to predict clinical severity of the patient more precisely.

This is a review of the different experimental approaches developed to solve the problems in our progress towards a comprehensive understanding of how arterial chemoreceptors operate. An analysis is performed of the bases, advantages and limits of the following preparations: studies of ventilatory reflexes originated from carotid bodies (CBs) in the entire animal; recordings of CB chemosensory discharges in situ; CB preparations perfused in situ; CB explants in oculo; CB explants in ovo; CB preparations incubated in vitro; CB preparations superfused in vitro; CB preparations perfused and superfused in vitro; CB tissue slices in vitro; cells acutely dissociated from CBs; CB cells in tissue culture; petrosal ganglia superfused in vitro; petrosal ganglion cells in tissue culture; and co-cultures of CB and sensory ganglion cells. A brief historical account is given of the passage from one preparation to the next one. Emphasis is placed on personal experience with the different preparations whenever possible. Examples are given of the importance of selecting the appropriate experimental preparation for solving each particular theoretical problem. In fact, brilliant ideas on how the CB works have been unproductive until finding the adequate experimental approach to explore the validity of such ideas. © 2006 Sociedad de Biología de Chile.